Bread

Archeologists can date the history of bread to the Neolithic era. The evolution of bread throughout history has been influenced by ingredient availability, technology, environmental conditions, socio-cultural affect, workman organizations (guilds), and palate. Bread is simply a form of ground grain and water baked, steamed, or fried and has served as the sustenance for life throughout history. Differing from region to region, bread may contain yeast, salt, eggs, liquid, nuts, fruits, herbs, beer, dairy, sugar, spices, and seeds.

History of Bread
Grain
Flour
Steps in Bread Making
Categories of Bread
Recipes

History of Bread

~8000 years ago, grain was crushed with a pestle and mortar. The bread then was unleavened and made from a variety of crushed grains, similar to today's Mexican tortillas and Indian chapattis.
~Egypt developed grain production (barley) along the Nile River 5000 years ago. Grain became a staple of the human diet and later spread to the Balkans and throughout Europe
~Egyptian bakers became skilled in the art of bread making, along with brewing beer, around 4000BC. Bakers began experimenting with yeast leavened doughs.
~The closed oven was invented by the Egyptians at 3000BC, assigning great significance to bread. Pyramid workers were paid in bread, rather than money.
~In 2300BC, grain cultivation began in the Indus Valley
~In 500BC, the Romans developed a stone wheel for milling grain (stoneground), called a quern; this device became the basis for all milling until the industrial revolution
~The first bakers' guilds were formed in Rome in 150BC and Romans began demanding exclusive and expensive white breads.
~In 1066 hair sieves were used to sift the bran from flour, producing a finer white bread
~In 1050 bakers guilds throughout Britain and in parts of Europe formed to protect the bakers
~Chaucer wrote The Miller's Tale in 1400, pointing to the greedy ways of millers and their suspicious standing in society
~Wheat began to replace rye and barley as the primary bread-making grains in 1700.
~The industrial revolution causes an evolution in bread making
~In 1928 Otto Rohwedder started work on a bread slicing machine; after many setbacks he produced a machine that sliced bread and wrapped it to keep the moisture in.

Grain

Wheat, barley, oats, and other grains are grasses that bear edible seeds.

Wheat is the most important grain in the western world. It is followed by eight other cereals and grains, important for human nutrition and consumption: rice, oats, rye, barley, millet, corn, sorghum, and buck wheat.

By far, the greater percentage of flour used today is milled from wheat, which is grown almost all over the world.

The edible portion of grain is called a kernel.

A grain of wheat consists of 3 main parts.

• Bran: Bran is the outer coat of the kernel. it protects the grain and provides distinctive colors, ranging from pale amber to reddish light brown. It is made up of 6 dry thin layers that are brittle, tough, and paper-like. The human body does not absorb bran, although it is important for its fiber. Bran coating contains most of the vitamin B complex and 15% of the weight of the kernel cleans the digestive system by scrubbing the walls of the intestines. Just underneath the bran coat is the aleurone layer, which is only one to four cells in thickness and contains oils, minerals, proteins, vitamins, enzymes, and flavor
   

• Germ: The germ is the most nutritious part of the plant. It grows at the base of the kernel and it is the embryo of the future plant. It contains most of the fat, plus some iron, protein, vitamins B & E, and natural oils. The germ has a nutty taste to it and is 3% of the total weight of the kernel (and must be refrigerated to prevent rancidity, because of the high content of fat).
   

• Endosperm: The Endosperm is the central, large part of the grain. It nourishes the whole grain and it is made up of fine particles of starch, protein, and minerals. There is generally more starch and less protein per cell near the center of the grain than there is near the surface. The more the grains are refined, the less nutritious they become. Refined grains are easier to cook and chew and are lighter in color. It is from the endosperm that white flour is milled. It makes up 82% of the total weight of the kernel.

Flour
 

Types of flour:
 

Wheat: Wheat is classified soft or hard depending on the hardness of the kernel.

Hard Wheat Flour: Is milled from hard red spring wheat. It is from the western part of the country, planted in the spring and harvested in the fall. It is a hearty grain and is known for its high mineral and gluten content. It is good for bread making and has a high content of gluten 14%–16%. (It is marketed as bread flour). Tougher. Colder climate = heartier grain.

Hard Red Winter: Is planted in the late fall and is harvested in the spring in the southwestern United States. It is less tough than the spring wheat, has less protein, is not quite as strong as spring wheat, and is grown in a warmer climate. It is good for bakery products and best milled into all-purpose flour. It has 10%-11% gluten (muffins and scones)

Soft Red Winter: Is planted in the fall and is harvested in the spring in the Midwest. It is known for its smoothness and softness. It is used for cakes and pastries and has about 9% gluten protein in it.

White Spring Wheat: Is grown in the South and is planted all year long. It is very soft flour and is low in gluten. This flour is good for delicate cakes, cookies, and crackers. It pours like sugar and has 7%-7.5% gluten protein.

Durum Wheat: Is the hardest of all the flours and it has the highest protein content of all wheat flours. However, it does not form gluten that is as elastic or stretchy as other wheat flours. It is yellow in color.

• Semolina Flour is made from grinding the heart of the durum wheat berries. This flour is usually used in making pasta. It needs professional mechanical action to knead and it is really hard

Farina: Farina flour is a hard (but not durum) wheat flour or potato flour

Whole Wheat Flour: Is made by milling the entire grain, including the bran and germ. It has a brown and cream speckled look and a coarser texture. It gives a nutty toasted flavor to breads, which will be dense. Stone-ground whole wheat flour retains the maximum nutrients in the wheat. The germ is ground into the flour slowly, between huge granite stones called buhrs, without producing heat, which can destroy the nutrients.

Cracked Wheat: Is whole wheat, coarsely cut, ground, or milled.

• Whole wheat flour must be stored in the refrigerator because the germ is still in it and it will become rancid and infested with bugs if left at room temperature.

Bulgur: Bulgur is whole wheat, steamed, dried, and then cracked (sometimes retaining the bran and sometimes not).

Couscous: Couscous is not a whole grain; rather, it is a tiny pellet (like pasta) made from durum semolina flour. It is used in traditional North African dishes, steamed over water or stock, and flavored with nuts, carrots, and spices.

Corn: Cornmeal is made from ground, dried corn kernels and it comes in various colors: yellow, white, blue, and red. It is often added to bread to provide a crunchy, crumbly texture, depending on the coarseness of the grind. Corn germ, hominy, grits, masa harina, johnnycake meal, and polenta are some of the names for cornmeal of various grinds and processes.

• Cornstarch is the ground starch isolated from the whole corn kernel. It is an excellent thickener and also can be used in combination with wheat flour to produce a desired tenderness and delicacy in certain baked goods.

Rye: Rye is actually a weed that infests the wheat fields. It grows well in poor soil and cool climates. Rye flour comes in four grades according to how much bran is removed from the flour during milling. Rye has a low gluten content and must be combined with high-protein wheat flour. It is also the least nutritious. Rye is an interesting grain because it has the ability to be contaminated with a fungus, known as ergot, which can cause hallucinations and is not destroyed during the baking process.

• Pumpernickel Rye contains the whole rye berry, coarsely milled.

Barley: Barley is easy to grow. It originated in Asia and is the oldest grain, thought to be 7000 years old. It has been cultivated for 5000 years. It is a hardy grain with a nutty flavor, used for beer making and cattle feed. Barley contains a substance that inhibits cholesterol production in humans and animals; thus, the flesh of barley-fed animals is lower in cholesterol.

• Approximately one-third of all American-grown barley is used to make beer

• Barley Malt: Barley Malt is a sweetener used in commercial breads to provide maltose and glucose for yeast growth and moisture retention. The grain sprouts, is kiln-dried, and ground into a powder or added to water and other cooked grains to make malt syrup.

• Malt Extract: Malt Extract is made only with barley, is used in baking, especially European bread formulas such as rye bread. It is a quick yeast food and enhances the elasticity and retain the moisture in the crumb.

• Pearled Barley: When the bran layer in barley is removed it is called pearled barley, because the bran is fused to the endosperm and it must be polished off. Hulled, unpearled barley is difficult to find. In ancient Greece, it was known as a specialty food for the gladiators.

Oats: Very little is known of its origins. It grows well in cool, damp climates. It is very rich in proteins and minerals, is one of the most nutritious grains, and is used for animal feed and cereals. Oats give texture, taste, and nutrition to breads. It is the main ingredient in a granola bar.

• Scotch Oats/Irish Oats: Whole kernel or groat are cut into smaller pieces, soaked overnight, and are then cooked.

• Rolled Oats: Oats that are steamed, pressed together, and then rolled out into flat flakes and cut.

• Quick-Cooking Oats: Oats that are rolled thinner and cut into smaller pieces to reduce the cooking time.

• Oat brans are the hull of the oat grain. Oat bran provides fiber, flavor, and texture to baked goods.

Millet: Used more during Medieval times, it is a small round, golden-colored grain, not unlike corn in flavor. It has high protein content, but it does not contain gluten. It is used for beer making, birdseed, and when ground into flour, it can be used to replace some of the wheat flour in breads and other baked goods. Millet cooks like rice and can also be used for unleavened breads.

Buckwheat: Buckwheat is not a grain but a seed from an herb. It is a member of the Rhubarb family.

• Finely Ground Buckwheat: Called Buckwheat Flour, it has not gluten and is found in dark and light varieties. It is used in baked goods that result in dark, malty, and a faintly bitter taste. The toasted version is known as Kasha. 

Quinoa: Quinoa is a grass seed, not a grain, from South America. It is like wild rice, containing eight amino acids and a high protein content. It cooks like wild rice and becomes more translucent under heat. It is small, flat, and ivory in color before it is cooked. Quinoa seeds can be ground into quinoa flour and used in pancakes, waffles, muffins, and breads. It has a low gluten content and must comprise only 25% of the total flour content of the product. It has a delicate, nutty, sesame-like flavor.

Rice: Rice is the principle food crop for half of the world's population. It is second only to wheat in total world production. It is a native to Asia and perhaps India and was introduced to Europe in 300 BC by Alexander the Great.

• Rice requires more water to grow than any other grain, which is why it grows in marshy, damp climates. There is long grain rice, short grain rice, brown rice, basmati rice, Arborio rice, wild rice, and converted rice (where the grain is steamed, dried, and then milled—Uncle Ben's brand).

• Rice Flour/Rice Starch: This is usually made from white rice. It is used to add tenderness to a produce or as a thickener. Also used as a substitute for gluten-free flours.

Nut Flours: These contain no gluten but are often used in baked goods for delicate taste and texture. Ground almonds, hazelnuts, and pistachios are all found in flour form.

Graham Flour: This originally was coarse, whole wheat flour made by removing the germ and bran and then by adding the bran back in a higher proportion. Now it may be a blend of whole wheat flour and whole rye flour. It is very high in fiber and will not become rancid as fast as whole wheat flour. 

Wondra: This is also called "instant" flour. Wondra is a low gluten flour whose starch granules have been pre-cooked until they gel. It is then dried again, which makes it easier for the water to penetrate during cooking. It is used as thickeners and in tender pastries.

Steps in Bread Making

• Activate the yeast
• Prepare the dough
• Knead the dough
• Allow dough to ferment (first rise)
• De-gas (punch down)
• Benching
• Shape the dough
• Proof
• Dorure
• Baking
• Cooling

Categories of Breads

• Batter breads (These are breads that are too soft to knead or pick up with your hands. An example would be quick breads such as banana bread)
• Kneaded breads (These breads are the most familiar, such as French Bread)
• Crashed and Rolled breads (Examples of crashed doughs are brioche and examples of rolled doughs are croissant and Danish)

Recipes

Beer Bread
Italian Country Bread
Rosemary-Olive Rolls

Learn more about bread in CSCA's All You Knead Recreational Class